COMPARISON OF PERIODONTAL HEALTH STATUS OF SMOKERS VERSUS NON-SMOKERS
Abstract
Background: This study aims to compare the periodontal health status of current smokers versus non-smokers. The study was carried out in the Dental department, Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences (PIMS) between May 2009 and June 2010. A total of 280 male subjects, married, over the age of 18 were selected to take part in the study and their periodontal health was assessed by presence of calculus, bleeding on probing and pocket depth greater than four millimetres. Methods: Patients including smokers and non smokers were selected on the basis of the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Subjects were clinically evaluated by using a specially designed CPITN probe which was used to measure pocket depths in the mouth. The mouth was divided into six sextants. The other variables examined included bleeding on probing and presence of calculus. The data was subsequently analyzed using the SPSS statistical software programme. The statistical significance level was set at 5%. Results: There was decreased incidence of bleeding on probing (31.7%) in smokers than non-smokers (53.5%) however, there was an increased incidence of calculus formation among smokers (89.4%) compared to the subjects who did not smoke (69.6%). There was a significant difference between the overall mean pocket depth in smokers (3.7±1.4) and non-smokers (3.0±1.1). All of the above differences were found to be statistically significant. Conclusion: There was a marked association between cigarette smoking and periodontal disease.Keywords: Periodontal ligament, Periodontal disease, Calculus, pocket depth, SmokingReferences
Al-Shammari KF, Al-Khabbaz AK, Al-Ansari JM, Neiva R, Wang HL. Risk Indicators for Tooth Loss Due to Periodontal Disease. J Periodontol 2005;76:1910–8.
Corbet EF, Davies WI. Reasons given for tooth extraction in Hong Kong. Community Dent Health 1991;8:121–30.
Haddad I, Haddadin K, Jebrin S, Ma’ani M, Yassin O. Reasons for extraction of permanent teeth in Jordan. Int Dent J 1999;49:343–6.
Murray H, Locker D, Kay EJ. Patterns of and reasons for tooth extractions in general dental practice in Ontario, Canada. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1996;24:196–200.
Ainamo J, Sarkki L, Kuhalampi ML, Palolampi L, Piirto O. The frequency of periodontal extractions in Finland. Community Dent Health 1984;1:165–72.
Ong G, Yeo JF, Bhole S. A survey of reasons for extraction of permanent teeth in Singapore. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1996;24:124–7.
Cahen PM, Frank RM, Turlot JC. A survey of the reasons for dental extractions in France. J Dent Res 1985;64:1087–93.
Bergstrom J, Eliasson S. Cigarette smoking and alveolar bone height in subjects with high standard of oral hygiene. J Clin Periodontol 1987;14:466–9.
Calsina G, Ramon JM, Echeverria JJ. Effect of smoking on periodontal tissues. J Clin Periodontol 2002;29:771–6.
Locker D, Leake JL. Risk indicators and risk markers for periodontal disease experience in older adults living independently in Ontario, Canada. J Dent Res 1993;72:9–17.
Horning G, Hatch C, Cohen M. Risk indicators for periodontitis in a military treatment population. J Periodontol 1992;63:297–302.
Al-Wahadni A, Linden G. The effect of cigarette smoking on the periodontal condition of young Jordanian adults. J Clin Periodontol 2003:30:132–7.
Preber H, Bergstrom J. Cigarette smoking in patients referred for periodontal treatment. Scand J Dent Res 1986;94:102–8.
Faddy MJ, Cullinan MP, Palmer JE, Westerman B, Seymour GJ-dependence modeling in a longitudinal study of periodontal disease: The effect of age, gender, and smoking status. J Periodontol 2000;71:454–9.
Machuca G, Rosales I, Lacalle JR, Machuca C, Bullón P. Effect of cigarette smoking on periodontal status of healthy young adults. J Periodontol 2000;71(1):73–8.
Bergstrom J. Tobacco smoking and risk for periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 2003;30:107–13.
Kerdvongbundit V, Wikesjo ME. Effect of smoking on periodontal health in molar teeth. J Periodontol 2000;71:433–7.
Bergström J. Tobacco smoking and sub gingival dental calculus. J Clin Periodontal 2004;32:81–8.
Bergstrom J. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor in chronic periodontal disease. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1989;17:245–7.
Palmer RM, Scott DA, Meekin TN, Poston RN, Odell EW, Wilson RF. Potential mechanisms of susceptibility to periodontitis in tobacco smokers. J Periodontol Res 1999;34:363–9.
B H Mullally. The Influence of Tobacco Smoking on the Onset of Periodontitis in Young Persons. Tobacco induced diseases 2004:2:53–65.
World Health Organization (WHO) 1997. Oral Health Survey: Basic methods. 4th ed. England 1997.
Vered Y, Livny A, Zini A, Sgan-Cohen HD. Periodontal health status and smoking among young adults. J Clin Periodontol 2008;35:768–72.
Grossi SG1, Zambon JJ, Ho AW, Koch G, Dunford RG, Machtei EE. Assessment of risk for periodontal disease. Risk indicators for attachment loss. J Periodontol 1994;65:260–7.
Haber J, Wattles J, Crowley M, Mandell R, Joshipura K, Kent RL. Evidence for cigarette smoking as a major risk factor for periodontitis. J Periodontol 1993;64:16–23.
Zhou J, Olson BL, Windsor LJ. Nicotine increases the collagen-degrading ability of human gingival fibroblasts. Journal Periodontal Res 2007;42:228–35.
Norderyd O, Hugoson A, Grusovin G. Risk of severe periodontal disease in Swedish adult population. A cross sectional study. J Clin Periodontol 1998;25:1022–8.
Beck J, Cusmano L, Green-Helms W, Koch G, Offenbacher S. A 5-year study of attachment loss in community-dwelling older adults: incidence density. J Periodont Res 1997;32:506–15.
Dolan TA, Gilbert GH, Ringelberg ML, Legler DW, Antonson DE, Foerster U. Behavioral risk indicators of attachment loss in adult Floridians. J Clin Periodontol 1997;24:223–32.
Macgregor IDM, Edgar WM, Greenwood AR. Effects of cigarette smoking on the rate of plaque formation J Clin Periodontol 1985; 12: 35-41
Bergstrom J, Eliasson S, Dock J. Exposure to tobacco smoking and periodontal health. J Clin Periodontol 2000;27:61–8.
Natto S, Baljoon M, Bergstrom J. Tobacco smoking and periodontal health in a Saudi Arabian Population. J Periodontol 2005;76:1919–26.
Linden GJ, Mullally BH. Cigarette smoking and periodontal destruction in young adults. J Periodontol 1994;65:718–2
Published
Issue
Section
License
Journal of Ayub Medical College, Abbottabad is an OPEN ACCESS JOURNAL which means that all content is FREELY available without charge to all users whether registered with the journal or not. The work published by J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad is licensed and distributed under the creative commons License CC BY ND Attribution-NoDerivs. Material printed in this journal is OPEN to access, and are FREE for use in academic and research work with proper citation. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad accepts only original material for publication with the understanding that except for abstracts, no part of the data has been published or will be submitted for publication elsewhere before appearing in J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. The Editorial Board of J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad makes every effort to ensure the accuracy and authenticity of material printed in J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad. However, conclusions and statements expressed are views of the authors and do not reflect the opinion/policy of J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad or the Editorial Board.
USERS are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access.
AUTHORS retain the rights of free downloading/unlimited e-print of full text and sharing/disseminating the article without any restriction, by any means including twitter, scholarly collaboration networks such as ResearchGate, Academia.eu, and social media sites such as Twitter, LinkedIn, Google Scholar and any other professional or academic networking site.
